أçüےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےeals with hardware only - those mysterious devices with the putty-coloured plastic casings that confronted you when you first opened the Adam box, and what you might want to clip onto them where and why. What all the funny green boards are doing with all those odd bumps on them is the subject of another article in this series, while software has long ago been well discussed in the Adam Survival Guide, available from the Adam News Network.     By now I hope all the experts will have got the message that thBACKUP+    پUھے BOOT       ˆDIRECTORY  بanatmy1A  ANATMY2A  €ANATMY3A  ANATMY4A  #€ANATMY5A  .€ANATMY6A  9€ANATMY7A  D

€HOWTHNK1A N€HOWTHNK2A Y€PSPCT09A  d€READMEA   f€README1A  hRECORDA   kUSPOLICYA o€ANATMY1A  uBLOCKS LEFT€ at leaves the three really big lumps, the readily identifiable printer and keyboard and that other thing which, by elimination, must be the one most accurately termed the console but more usually called the CPU after the Central Processing Unit of the computer housed inside. We'll start with these three units.     All computer activity essentially starts with input by the user. So let's us start by looking at the device that puts in the instructions of the user - the keyboard. (Ever notice, by the way, juج1 ×62THE ANATOMY OF ADAM     This text is the extension of notes for a seminar presented at Adamcon 007 in Waterloo, Ontario during July 1995. It is intended strictly for the new and novice Adam user. It is not the work of an "authority"; rather it simply reflects the experience of a very average enthusiast user, and latterly supplier to the Adam community who often has to explain to someone fresh from a garage sale what his new prize is and what it won't and especially will do.     This explanation dےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےis work is not for them, and have gone away. But if you have just obtained an Adam and want to know what all those pieces are for, let's get together and begin.THE MAJOR UNITS     When the Adam box was originally opened, it contained a number of items. The seven pieces of literature, primarily manuals, and three datapacks with software we will ignore. There was also a strange black cable and funny switchbox which will be discussed in the appropriate place, as will the two keypad/joysticks and holder. Thst how neat and comfortable a design the Adam keyboard is? Some say it's the most lovable feature of the Adam, it is so easy to use). It is simple, durable and to a point easy to disassemble if necessary. Things that can make disassembly necessary are dirt, dust and general sticky stuff, but if you drop a liquid and especially something like a cola or coffee on it, don't bother to try a fix - that keyboard is history. Never mind; your trusty dealer can find a used replacement at a very reasonable price.   as you can without breaking the point, and try in effect to colour each wire black. The combination of the slight scaping action of the pencil "lead" and the light coating of conductive graphite it deposits will usually solve your problem. If it doesn't, either the problem lies elsewhere or, least likely of all, your keyboard is one of the very few to actually fail. But even in that case, a replacement is easy to come by.     Also given very much to aggravating tricks but basically extremely durable is y for two extra keys, on either side of the space bar. Why? Ask Coleco; on the casing they're blanked out. No Adam literature explains them. Probably they were intended for use on a future upgrade of the Adam that was planned but never produced.     Anything this simple is unlikely to have troubles; if it does most are easily fixed. In diagnosis the first thing to do is to look and see if the little red power light in the bottom right corner is lit. (I have never heard of one of these LEDs burning out). Ifs so much weight, the power supply. While the printer needs a supply of power, it doesn't have to be built in; though most printers do have internal power supplies external ones are not unheard of. But the power supply in your printer doesn't just power your printer, it powers the whole computer. This is significant.     For starters, having the power supply in the printer means it runs very hot. So find a way to have a fan blowing through the printer to clear out the heat. Don't block the heat vents; donr as most phones use. As this suggests, if you would live more happily with a shorter cable, or a longer one, or one without tensioning curls, you can get one easily and it will work.     But if it's Sunday night, and you're fifty miles from the nearest store anyway, and the essay has to be in at 9 a.m. Monday, try this simple trick. Most keyboard problems arise from corrosion on the cable ends. So take an HB or preferably softer pencil and sharpen it to a very fine point. Then reach in, pushing as firmly   Should you ever have cause to take a keyboard apart, you'll find the insides very simple. The main piece is just a piece of folded-over green plastic gridded with wires and placed so that each key presses down on a unique intersection of the grid. The location of the pressure is sensed by a 6801 processor hidden in the little tin box towards the top and interpreted as a number which is then sent to the console for action. Interestingly, should you ever open it up, you'll find openings in the key retainerour printer. It is slow and noisy and a greedy space hog, but it's also given to running on reliably for years when the fancier and pricier alternatives have long since bent their dot-matrix wires, clogged their inkjets or laser-burned their printing drums.     The printer is deceptive because it's actually two devices in one casing. The printer is just an electric-powered typewriter, simple mechanical linkages but moved by motors instead of finger impact. But hidden within is that hot metal mass that add it isn't, the problem likely lies with the cable that connects the keyboard to the console. First, make sure the cable is properly plugged in at both ends. If so, unplug it from the front of the console and try plugging it in to the duplicate socket on the left side of the console. If this doesn't work, try replacing the cable with a duplicate spare. You can get one cheap from your dealer or any electronics shop; it is exactly the same as the one on your telephone except that it has six wires, not just fou't put a book or papers on top of the printer, and don't put it in any location where it doesn't have free air circulation top, sides and bottom. If nothing else remember that the printer logic board is right there beside the power supply and electronic devices are notoriously susceptible to failure when exposed to excessive heat - and heat you consider just pleasantly warm a chip can find excessive and tell you so by blowing.      Power supply problems can show up in funny ways. For instance, they're mors in the tray. And the socket for the drive capstan must be firmly set on the drive peg - that dingus that looks like the end of a Phillips (crosspoint) screwdriver sticking up through the ribbon tray. Of course when you put it in, the cross in the socket of the ribbon drive won't match the position of the cross of the drive. Not to worry; cunningly concealed under the left-hand side of the ribbon tray you'll find a little thumbwheel. Just turn it till the drive peg advances into alignment with its ribbon sus and minus 5 volts to do the actual computing, and plus and minus 12 volts to run the tape drive(s). The power supply also puts out plus and minus 18 volts but these lines are only used within the printer itself - to advance the ribbon, if you're curious.     Ah yes, the ribbon. In the Adam community, it's common wisdom that you can always tell a genuine Coleco ribbon. It jams halfway through. Under my dealer hat it seems I spend half my time explaining to customers why their ribbon jammed and what to tlly if it's obstinate and doesn't want to move at first.     The reason for this is that built into the right-hand side of the printer is a quite complex gear drive. It wasn't designed, manufactured or built to the finest of tolerances, so the system has a lot of lash. In fact, on occasion for no visible reason, a pair of gears will fail to mesh and jam. As mentioned, the thumbwheel frees it up. Further occurences can be minimized by occasionally lubricating the geartrain. You can see the end of it at tophis procedure just gets you going again. But I have only once ever used a ribbon I did not have to repair at least once.     Ribbons have other nasty habits too, like jumping out from behind the printwheel - cured by installing a plastic foam damper in the feed "horn". But one is their invisible pickiness. Look at the bottom. When you put your new ribbon in the ribbon tray (being careful to thread it in front of the printwheel while you're at it), the little round holes must socket on to the alignment pege likely to put strange and uncalled-for characters on your screen than a failure in your video RAM. So if you suddenly turn the Adam on and find the screen studded with letters or figures you never typed, try cleaning the DB-9 connection, on both the computer console and printer cable ends; try giving both a squirt of electronic parts cleaner, and don't be surprised if the problem goes away. If you are trying to check the conection with a testing device, be aware that only four of the pins carry power - plocket and drops in. You'll find the hold-down clamp that holds the ribbon in the tray then snaps into place pretty well automatically.     A ribbon that suddenly jams and doesn't break is often the cause of a computer that suddenly stops dead in the middle of printing, locks up and won't respond to anything you do at the keyboard (although you might try pressing STOP PRINT, Smartkey V). If so, removing the ribbon may free things up. If not, try rocking the thumbwheel on the printer back and forth, especiao about it; I have also published three articles myself on the subject and others have also contributed their greater wisdom. But take it on faith, whether you are using the Coleco ribbon or the original, sturdier Diablo HT1/ Xerox 800 ribbon for which the printer mechanism was originally designed, you will have problems with ribbons jamming. And the only way to deal with it is to open up the cartridge, cut off and discard the used ribbon, and rethread and reattach the remainder. Notice I didn't say cure; t right looking into the open part of the printer. Put a dot of petroleum jelly on the point of a toothpick, wipe it onto the nearest gear, then advance the thumbwheel vigorously to carry the lubricant down the geartrain. It's worked for me.ےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےے$ےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےàےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےabout it. Your Adam group likely has a member with a copy who will be willing to photocopy it for you. It could be worth your while to try to track one down.     Most computer repair is a matter best left to the experts. But with the printer there is a lot you can do. It's simple and straightforward. To let you change the printwheel, once you have removed the ribbon and tilted back the ribbon shield on models where this is possible, releasing two catches on either side of the printhead assembly about halfج1 ×62     If you are getting the message from this that the printer is a pretty crude, simple device you are right. And most of its troubles are simple ones simply cured. For example, frequently I hear of printerheads that run to one side or the other of the printer and sit there trying to beat their way through. That's because they're lost.      Not all Adam printers are mechanically identical. But somewhere on the upper left inside of the printhead track area there is a little switch that is struck by Similarly if access to the other innards of the printer is wanted, the case is simply held on by seven screws (in eight holes; one's a dummy) on the bottom of the machine. The biggest real risk in fiddling with these is that you'll dump the printer upside down and break off the useful little thumb tabs on the paper bail. (Where the break was clean, I have succeeded in repairing one of these with superglue).     Once the casing is off you can deal with problems like loss of the ratchet in the thumbwheel;  it, the printer will lose its starting point and keep trying to run to the right. Turn the machine off, do a bit of obvious cleaning and fiddling here, and the problem is likely to go away. Of course while you're in there, take that silicone-impregnated cloth that came with your Adam and swab down and lubricate the printer rails; dirt or sticky spots on these are an invitation to trouble.     The Coleco internal document on printer repair runs to some 18 pages describing what can go wrong and what to do ےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےHےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےAےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےaےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےدےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےway down will let you tilt it back for access. If you're gentle, the whole printhead can be lifted off its travel carriage; the plastic can be bent enough to pull off its retaining pins rather in the same manner that a tape drive door can be removed and replaced. Removing the screws retaining the ribbon tray allows access to the drive solenoid should you need to adjust the stroke slightly. Even the most hamfisted and mechanically ignorant can do chores involving these pieces without courting disaster.     the printhead, or an arm attached to it, when the printer reaches the left hand limit of its travel, If this switch doesn't react, most likely because there's dirt in it, possibly because of corrosion, perhaps because it's been hit so often it has bent out of shape, least likely of all because the switch itself has failed, the printer thinks it still has some distance to go and tries to keep going to the left. Similarly if the normally-closed switch sticks open because there's a tiny speck of dirt blockingit's likely still there, just fallen off its spring. Pull hard on the thumbwheel and it comes out, letting you get at the platen to change it or work on the tensioning release lever if required. You can go a lot deeper too; having seen a gearbox that was dislodged and scrambled I have no urge to recommend any action that would displace that assembly, but most of the rest of the printer is pretty straightforward. Just remember when you go in that you'll be poking around the switch area with tools in all probnto an aftermarket printer. Space and convenience considerations, and the state of health of your Adam printer, may affect your choice.     But the core of the Adam is the console, which provides the master controls for everything the computer does. The ultimate brain and director is the Central Processing Unit (CPU), a Zilog Z80A 8-bit, 4 megahertz unit with an enhanced 8080 instruction set. That means, essentially, that it is in the mainstream of chip design; it was created by a group of former Intel enn do graphics in any meaningful way. There was a tractor feed manufactured for it for a while, but it is long gone from production and used examples are rare and hard to come by. A serious effort to revive production foundered when it was found that the cost of the drive sprockets would be prohibitive. The easiest solution is to place a tray of formfeed paper in exact alignment behind the printer and at the same level. Then, cut a length out of a wire coat hanger and bend down the ends so it can be plugged ing over" programs written for the Apple, Atari, Commodore or other such machines apparently closer to the Adam did not occur; those machines used CMOS or Motorola 65xx or 68xx CPUs with instruction sets totally incompatible with Adam's more mainstream Z80A.     Before the Adam there was the Colecovision video game player. In its time the Colecovision was the sort of clear leader Nintendo is now; in fact Nintendo was a vendor of game cartridges to Coleco, who packed a free Donkey Kong cartridge in each ga the power supply from a defunct Adam printer to run the computer, get one of the old Eve power supplies if you can find it, or get a suitable new one. I prefer to keep the Adam printer for single-page prestige letters (as in, "Dear Editor, you idiot..."), addressing envelopes which are a pain to feed into a dot-matrix printer really intended for continuous-feed paper use, and texts intended for photocopying. It can also, by changing printwheels, give me typefaces better for some purposes than those built iability, so make sure the printer is unplugged from your power bar or wall socket before you try taking it apart. And when putting it back together, be careful not to overtighten the screws. The plastic is soft and yielding and will distort, causing everything to bind. Replace screws evenly and gently, firmly enough to hold and resist vibration but far short of tightened to the limit of your strength.     The Adam printer has its limitations. It's slow and noisy. There is no way any daisy-wheel printer cagineers who left to form their own company to produce an enhanced version of the then-top Intel 8080 chip; they did well enough that the Z80A is more closely comparable to the later 8088. Just as Intel has since evolved its designs through the 8086, 80286, 80386, 80486, Pentium and P6, there have been Zilog upgrades since too. But this explains why programs written for the early 8080 machines (including certain IBMs) in some cases later showed up reconfigured to run on the Adam. This also explains why "portinto the two little holes at the top rear of the paper feed area of the printer. Feed the paper in and it's pretty good at staying in alignment. Some people like to run rubber bands from the thumb tabs of the paper bail and hook them under the corners of the removable printer cover to increase the pressure and enhance paper steadiness.     Others simply choose to install a dot-matrix or inkjet printer; any Epson/IBM compatible printer (about 95% of those you'll see) will work. In that case you can salvageme box. Unlike most competitors, including computers of the time, the Colecovision could support 16 different screen colours and 30-odd sprites as well as faster, more flexible action. It had a real computer CPU, the Zilog Z80A, but added to that it had a separate video controller, the very sophisticated Texas Instruments TI9918A Video Display Processor supported by its own dedicated 16K of video memory. To make this work it required a highly sophisticated and powerful custom input-output system with its owe game board also dictated the depth. But as the memory board could be placed partly under the game board, it could be reconfigured to give a little more room in some places, and this was done. But electronically the Expansion and standalone Adams are effectively identical; the only real difference is that the standalone has ports that allow video output to a true monitor, whereas the game machine is built to be used with a television set only. However, it is quite possible and easy for those familiar with me boards from disused Colecovisons to get their machines up and running again.     Obviously the next step was to make the game into a real computer. So Coleco made up an expansion module for the Colecovision, the third after an adapter that allowed it to play Atari games and a steering-wheel type of joystick. The Colecovision Expansion Module 3 carried the additonal name "Adam: the Colecovison Family Computer System".     The Colecovision Expansion Adam has a smaller console, as all it needs to supplyےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےHےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےAےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےaےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےدےےےےےےےےےےےےےےے the game and console together, which also blocked the game power plug as the assembly was wired to supply the game board with power from the Adam printer. Since the console clipped on to the game's original bus connector and blocked it, the bus was carried through the console and out the right hand side.     When Coleco built the standalone unit, they made a few changes. The height of the box would be governed by the tape drives, plus cooling space needed. The width was the drives plus the game board; thn special processor never made for anyone but Coleco.     Early into the design period of the Colcevision game the company realized that what they had produced was essentially a computer so they used it as such. Barring some details of the pattern in which the edges of the board are cut, the Colecovison game is the top board of the two inside the standalone Adam console. That's why it has the separate game reset, and why the game cartridge slot is where it is. Some users with broken Adams have salvaged gaelectronics to add monitor output jacks to the Colecovision game board.rest gear, then advance the thumbwheel vigorously to carry the lubricant down the geartrain. It's worked for me.ےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےے$ےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےàےےےےےےےےےےےےےےے is a home for the random access memory, expansion slots for computer-type peripherals (tape and disc drives, modem, memory expander, optional printer, etc.) which we'll discuss later, a control system ("Adamnet") and a socket for an upgraded operating system ROM chip. Actually another ROM chip was put in too, containing the Smartwriter program. This expansion console came in a package with all the other familiar Adam accessories - printer, keyboard, datapacks and accessory bits. A tray was supplied to holdج1 ×62     Most of the Adams sold were standalone units, so as we get down to an examination of the specific parts we will use that as the basis for our description. And now that we know the general layout, we can get down to specifics. What are all those holes and pins and apertures good for? Let's examine the console area by area, starting at the top right front corner and working our way clockwise around.     On top the first things we encounter are the reset switches. The rightmost one on the standalcted power bar. Some have found they had problems with Adam not recognizing a drive if the Adam was plugged in to the socket nearest the power bar switch, but if the Adam was put in the socket furthest from the power entry it did recognize everything plugged in ahead of it. The speed at which things happen really is that fast.     Located between the reset switches (or in the game unit with an Expansion module) is the cartridge slot. Notice we did not say "game cartridge slot". It is true that Coleco onlybe present except the game cartridge slot, in the sequence of: hard disc (if it has a boot prom), floppy drives 1 then 2, then tape drives 1 then 2. This has a side benefit of usually giving you the means of stopping a "runaway" drive; just load a bootable program into a drive polled earlier in the reset sequence. Thus with a deformatted tape running back and forth in drive 1, put SmartBASIC or some other program in the first disc drive and reset; if the disc drive is hung up with an unreadable disc, try pupabilities when loaded from a cartridge than when loaded from tape or disc, though no one has yet found out why. Syd Carter produced his Sound Digitizer (with optional Clock/Calendar) to work from this slot too. While the capability has been little exploited, pretty well any program of 32K or less can be written to a cartridge and loaded from the cartridge slot.     There's really only one caution to be remembered when invoking the reset; that is that it automatically occurs when the Adam is first turned is is why it is necessary to plug in the keyboard and turn on the disc drives, monitors and other attachments before turning on the Adam itself; if your Adam doesn't see it at startup it doesn't believe the attachment is there. As with all computer internal activities this whole business occurs with lightning speed. Many owners with lots of peripherals (disc drives, auxiliary printers, etc.) prefer to leave everything always with the power switches in the on position and control the power with a surge-proteone is the game reset switch; on the Expansion module this is on the Colecovision game set. Every reset switch clears the computer memory (except for anything in the memory expander if this is being used as a ramdisc). It then selectively polls the attached peripherals to see if a bootable program is present and if not defaults to the entry screen. The game reset polls only the game cartridge slot and if it finds nothing defaults to the Colecovision screen. The computer reset polls everything else that may  ever offered Colecovision games to go in this, but a game is just a program like any other and in fact the computer will read any program up to 32K plugged in here. Thus Walters Software will write the (28K) SmartBASIC program onto a chip, put it on a cartridge board you can plug in, and you can have "instant" loading and save wear and tear on your tape drive. They also offer a cartridge version of the unreleased Coleco Graphics Processor (also called Project Name-By-Line) which for some reason has more calling the game reset. The runaways won't always stop instantly; you may have to pull the switch a couple of times, but sooner or later it usually works, and more often sooner than later.     The computer reset also generates the printer self-check, that noise you hear as the printer runs to the left-hand stop, spins its printwheel and advances to the designated left margin setting. Once it has polled the Adamnet it will usually not recognize anything turned on or attached after the reset has been done. Thon. At this point everything becomes electrically live. So, cartridges which can spark or short gently - but enough to do damage - should only be plugged in or removed with power to the Adam off. But the surge at startup can also occasionally provoke an eddy current in the disc or tape reading heads capable of trashing a disc or tape, so tapes or discs should only be put in after the Adam has been turned on and removed before it is turned off. Most of the time you can get away with disregarding these instrund can suggest which will best adapt to your setup, temperament and pocketbook. There are even copy programs that will let you back up a cartridge to tape or disc. Just ask your dealer or check your user group library. If you want to keep your Adam as useful as all your programs can make it, this is not an option - you must always MAKE A BACKUP.     End of sermon. Now let's get back to Adam and our examination of the console's physical characteristics. We'll start with the first peripheral port. A periphen onto it in the form of very elaborate weak magnetic fields. Every other magnetic field will try to change it - static from your fingers, your television set or monitor, the motor in your refrigerator or air conditoner, your telephone bell or stereo speakers, to name a few obvious examples. Our Earth has its own magnetic field, while the sun constantly sends out magnetic waves so powerful they can pass right through the Earth as if it weren't there. The electromagnetic spectrum is full of radio and televis. As a reminder, the cable and sockets are standard telephone type except that they are of the rarer six-wire variety; the more usually found four-wire units won't work.     This is a situation, as is often the case with computers, where appearances are deceiving, and the documentation is less than revealing. You don't have to plug your keyboard into this port; you can just as happily use the similar one marked "Adamnet" on the bottom left side near the power cable. And if your layout makes it more comforrth where you can protect your discs and tapes from electronic destruction sooner or later. So always make a backup. There are all sorts of copy programs available, some public domain, some commercial, all with different strengths and weaknesses - the program meant for the user with no more than the base Adam that is just as it came from the box is far different from the one adapted for a hard disc, a couple of floppies and a big memory expander usable as a ramdisc. Your favourite Adam dealer has them all actions but every once in a while, as with an unexpected power outage, you'll get caught. Not to worry; of course the first thing you did with every program you ever bought was to make a backup, wasn't it?     This point is worth emphasizing. Rule #1 of computing is MAKE A BACKUP. Rule #1A is DO IT NOW. All electronic media are ephemeral, including the electronic patterns written into cartridge chips. A disc or tape is just a piece of rusty plastic, the same as an audio or video tape. Information is writteral is anything not hardwired into the integral structure of the computer; a port is the physical attachment point for any peripheral though the same term can refer to the address in memory that routes traffic to the physical port. And on the bottom front of the computer is what looks like a telephone jack socket, which your manual tells you (you have studied your manual, haven't you?) should be connected by what looks like a standard telephone cable to a matching port on your first peripheral, the keyboardon transmissions, leakage from power lines, even surges from nearby lightning strikes.     On your audio tapes a magnetic change will show only as a pop or hiss perhaps barely audible if at all; you may not even notice the tiny instantaneous flicker of a single pixel that tattles on a magnetic error in your video tape. But on a computer medium, the change of just one single little bit can in the worst case render the whole contents unusable, and in the most literal sense there is absolutely no place on Eatable, you can plug the disc drive that usually goes into the "Adamnet" socket into the "keyboard" socket instead. Everything will still work just fine.     The secret of this lies in that all but invisible word "Adamnet" hidden on the bottom left side; it is the special feature that gives the Adam its rare huge expandability. All of Adam's communication with its peripherals is routed through this special circuit. There is a master 6801 chip that takes orders from the CPU and routes them to slave 6801s inething is happening within the Adamnet. Fortunately, the latter is far more often the result of some sort of software confusion than anything intrinsically wrong with the computer.ےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےaےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےدےےےےےےےےےےےےےےے the face of the Adam, the tape drive. In fact there is provison for a second drive; installing it is just a matter of lifting the lid, unscrewing and removing the blank masking plate, plugging the new drive in its place (it has little feet that engage holes in the bottom of the console) and replacing the three attachment screws. Then the wires are plugged in to the pair of sockets not used by the original tape drive. You'll notice by the side of the socket well, embossed in the plastic, the labels 1A-2A-1Bcs of the drive controls. Keep them clean; most complaints I receive of tape drives not working are solved when I advise the owners to clean them. Just use the same liquid cleaner you use on normal audio tape cassette drives; do not use anything abrasive or a demagnetizer. And since the thin deposit you're trying to remove is an abrasive, don't rub it on the read head with a stiff pad; try rather to float it off with minimal assistace from a very soft foam applicator.     To operate properly the drive mus first place to look. Note that the troubles won't necessarily show up in the drives themselves; they may take such forms as a refusal to boot or reset properly, strange characters on the screen, or similar not obviously related misbehaviour.     Since these are Adamnet devices, notice that they are governed by a single 6801 controller which names them 0 and 1 (not 1 and 2 as they're tagged in most software). Thus if just one drive acts up the trouble is in the drive itself; if both have troubles then som the keyboard, printer and tape drive control unit, or to analagous chips in other attachments. Physical constraints do mean that you can't just plug anything into anything, but the Adamnet does let you run more than one operation from each port - for instance, in theory (in fact the available software doesn't support it) you can daisy-chain some 16 disc drives in sequence from one port and still have the Adam directly address whichever one you choose.     This can be seen in the peripheral that dominatesج1 ×63     Adam repair facilites have remarked that anything up to 90% of the Adam problems they see are related to the tape drives. These are the weak point of the Adam. But there are ways to postpone troubles. First, don't drive them too hard. They heat up considerably when heavily used; after all, Coleco had to make the datapack casings out of Lexan because of concerns the more conventionally used plastics would melt. You don't want that level of heat trapped in the delicate and heat-sensitive electroni-2B indicating the drive and plug to be attached. The "A" plugs have one more wire than the "B" plugs; all are plugged in with the little ridge on the plugs facing the back of the Adam. About the only way to go wrong is to plug them in with an offset, that is placed so that on either side you end up with a pin left over. If you make this mistake you will find your Adam gets very balky indeed; in fact if you have troubles after installing a second tape drive (or reinstalling a replacement) this should be thet run within plus or minus 3% of designed speed. If you use Syd Carter's Megacopy device to reformat electronically damaged tapes, Syd advises that you have the reading tape running marginally - say half a percent - faster than the writing drive. You can check your tape speed with the public domain speedcheck program available from your Adam dealer. Two cautions must be observed when using the program. First, it must be downloaded from a disc to the working tape; copying it from tape to tape introduces erroten, especially if you act quickly and coolly all is not necessarily lost. It is possible to open up a tape cassette, take out the damaged tape, straighten it out, reinstall and rethread it. Surprisingly often even an apparently terribly twisted tape will prove readable when subsequently tried. Just don't crowd your luck. Even if you handled everything with anti-static gloves, somehow got all the creases out, and at no time in all the hours and hours and hours it took you to untangle the tape touched it witves, some of which have their speed adjustment screws on the top, others on the bottom. Especially on those that use the bottom location the screws can be very hard to find; they are tiny, buried in the vents, and often the drive has been so assembled that a wire packet covers and hides the adjustment screw. Move the cables around carefully and you will find the screw; if you're lucky in the top right vent, but often in the bottom centre obscured by a particularly thick and obstinate wire bundle. Loosening  onto it in a dubbing tape deck, and have it work for a while, maybe, and if you waste enough time doing it and checking it. But remember that the electronic format written onto the Adam datapack is digital and copying it through an analogue sound system isn't going to produce the properly exact result. Those holes you drilled are unlikely to have the precision of placement of the ones formed into the datapacks, and those holes are important for the proper alignment of the tape in the drive - that's why thend is a clicking from the drive as it tries to advance the tape and can't - stop it immediately using the technique described earlier for runaway drives. This should not be a cause for panic, but the more quickly and properly you react, the less your subsequent problems will be. And an occasional tape can be eaten even by a drive that is still running properly; it takes more than one instance with different tapes over a short time interval befoe trouble can be firmly diagnosed.     Should your tape get ears that make the copy inaccurate. Second, there is a difference in the formatting between the early clear-label tapes and later silver-label datapacks; the speedcheck program you choose must be placed on the type of datapack it was written for. When you are using the program you will find that as long as the plugs are not disturbed the data drives do not need to be screwed in to the Adam but rather can be lifted out and moved around. This is necessary as there are several subtly different designs of datadrih a metal tool or bare hand that could not help but leave a deposit of corrosive oil and sweat, or breathed moist breath on it, it still has been mechanically damaged, will likely start to corrode, and sooner or later will tangle again. So as soon as it's fixed, make a new copy onto a quality virgin tape, because you are going to lose the original soon.     Don't confuse Adam datapacks with ordinary audio tapes. It is entirely possible to drill a couple of holes in a standard audio cassette, copy a formatthe screws that hold the drive together just a tiny bit can make it easier to move the cable around, but remember to retighten things later.     One of the nastier symptoms of a drive on the point of failure is a tendency to "eat" tapes. This happens when the motors get out of synchronization and the reel from which the tape is being moved no longer generates sufficient drag and allows slack to develop. The tape then falls off the edge of the takeup reel, winds around the spindle and jams. The warning souy're there. The tape itself differs from audio type in both the backing and the coating; the former is strengthened to stand the sudden abrupt stops, starts and reverses of data use and the latter is especially formulated to resist "dropouts" of the critical tiny metal grains when the tape snaps to a halt. As mentioned, the plastic casing is of a more heat-resistant plastic. Like an over-used car that will work fine till you're on a back road on a Sunday night in a February blizzard, an audio tape may appearked TV puts out a signal of combined audio and video that can be received by any standard North American television set on, depending on your setting of the little switch hidden in its rectangular hole nearby, your choice of channels 3 or 4. If you're just restarting your Adam after a move, shutdown or repair and don't get a picture, the first thing to do is check your computer to TV connections, and the second is to move the channel switch between 3 and 4. If this still doesn't produce a picture, only theck a turn or two too. The tape drives have a sensor that can tell if a tape has been moved in or out and an error message that says "adjust media" means the computer is locked up and won't proceed until the sensor reports this has been done. Also for no reason I can understand or explain, I've found that once the Adam has, as it were, stumbled over a given block it is much less likely to do so if after adjustment it is restarted at another block, accomplished by winding back the tape a bit. There's no visibse a computer monitor that takes a composite input, such as the Commodore 1702 or 1084, NEC, or Magnavox among others. If you can't find or make a suitable DIN cable, you can also go down to the nearest audio store and get one of the 5-pin DIN plugs that sprout four output sockets on cables and are used on hi-fi sets. One of these sockets will have the audio output which you can find by experimentation if all else fails. In this case you get the video portion of the signal from the socket (or jack) marked "that reflect their competence - high. Your user group or dealer can often recommend a repair facility. Still a tape drive failure can bring a quick understanding of why all those other Adam owners bought disc drives.     Since they've been dealt with earlier, we'll skip over the Adamnet and printer connections on the left side of the Adam and proceed to that panel with the funny looking sockets on the rear. These are for Adam's video output, which is an NTSC composite output. That means that the socket mar to work adequately for a while but may let you down just when you need reliability most. If you wish, use it for temporary storage of data you can afford to lose and don't really care about anyway, but not for anything of significant importance.     There will be times when even with the best tapes Adam will report a read or write error during some tape operation. This happens occasionally for no apparent reason. If it does, take the datapack out of the drive, then reinstall it. It can pay to wind it ban should you consider other possible sources of trouble.     The circle with seven pinholes is called a DIN (for Deutsche Industrile Norm, roughly) connector and carries the video and audio signals separately, and requires a ground. Since the three pins used are numbers 1, 4 and 5 a five-pin DIN connector can be wired to serve as well, it's just that it's possible to plug in a 5-pin connector with the pins in the wrong holes - you have a chance to go wrong at either end. This is necessary if you want to ule reason why this should be so; it just happens to work that way.     According to repair sources, the Adam tape drive is not significantly more difficult to repair than a standard audio drive, especially if you have a copy of the schematics which can be obtained from your user group or dealer. Most of the failures involve the speed control circuit and a particular transistor within it. Any competent electronics technician can do it. It's just that most can't be bothered and those that can charge prices Monitor". If you have a reasonably new TV and VCR, you'll likely find that they have input jacks marked "Aux video" and "Aux audio" on them; the VCR will have such for both input and output and connecting the VCR output to the TV jacks will give you a better picture and mean you don't have to tune the TV to any particular channel; it just responds to whatever the VCR is putting out. The Adam DIN and Monitor jacks carry the same signals.     This is important to you. It means that if you want to use the TVl electronics shop and got a baluns. That's an adapter that let me hook the two little dipole wires on one end onto the antenna screws of the TV, and accepted the RCA connector of the Adam in the other. These days you'll need one that converts RCA to Type F, the coax cable end that screws into the cable-type antenna connector on the TV. Then I discovered that the Coleco manual recommends rolling the excess length of the RCA cable that comes with the Adam into a loop. That helped too. I also discovered that h your favorite graphics program or Logo and design what you want on the computer. Then when everything is displayed to your satisfaction, switch the output plugs to the appropriate jacks on the VCR and press "Record" for as long as you want the graphic displayed. You can even use the TV jack connected to the TV simultaneously to keep track of what's going on. After all, the TV and VCR only know that they are receiving an NTSC signal of the type they were designed to receive and display or record; they don'ype F connector. By this time the picture on my set was really good; Adam visitors to my home demanded explanations as to how I did it. But even with the better shielding gained by substituting the coax for the Adam cable, I still lived in an all-electric house under an aircraft flight path with competing signals on both channels 3 and 4 and all sorts of powerful interference sources nearby, there were times when things were a lot less than perfect. So finally I went back to the electronics shop and bought ج1 ×63     The first objection that will be heard to this is that "I've got my Adam hooked up to my TV and the picture is terrible". It is a complaint any dealer hears frequently, and there is no one universal cure. I personally started out feeding my Adam signal into an old Toshiba 14-inch set and the dazzle was so bad I had to run through all the screen colour options in Smartwriter before I could finally find a combination I could stand. So I started fiddling around.     First, I went down to the loca as your monitor you can do it and have a good picture. Being able to use the TV as a monitor can be a huge Adam advantage - for instance, if anyone in the family has deteriorating eyesight, they can use Smartwriter displayed on your 27-inch screen. This is an edge that even the priciest Pentium can't offer you, at least without a hard to find adapter costing several hundred dollars.     This is especially neat if you collect video tapes or have a camcorder. Want a title screen? Just fire up your Adam witeven though in theory in my area the tv transmission on channel 4 is stronger than that on channel 3, I got a better picture with the Adam switched and the TV tuned to channel 4.     My next step was to get a pair of Type F to RCA adapters - they are small, cheap and readily available - and a precut length of coax cable, to which I affixed the adapters on either end. That let me plug the coax into the Adam jack at one end and the baluns at the other - my TV set was so old it didn't have the now-standard Tt know if it's coming from your antenna, cable or Adam. They just take it in and do what you want. Try that on your IBM!than anything intrinsically wrong with the computer.ےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےaےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےدےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےan antenna signal booster, and ran the Adam hookup through that. From that point on new visitors to my home (as a club president, and later dealer, I had a lot) would almost always remark, "Oh, I see you use a monitor" and were totally astonished when I pointed out the tuner that proved it was a TV. Of course these days I use a true monitor on all my "working" Adams, but back then you couldn't buy good monitors on the used market for a song as you can today.     The moral of this story? If for any reason  mass of cabling snaked away across the balance of the big table and halfway across another. Attached to it and working simultaneously were, if memory serves, an original wire-wrap type memory expander, a fast external modem, an 80-column card and the monitor it supported, a printer and an eprom burner. The actual details don't really matter; what counts is that this bus connector opens the way to using with the Adam pretty well any peripheral that doesn't demand either more speed or data-handling capacity his greatest power is on his right side. Here the main communications bus that directly ties together all his calculating and managing functions pokes out into the external world. This is the same electronic superhighway that carries all the traffic that integrates an independent Colecovision game and the Expansion Module into a single, unified computer. And with that edge connector lurking under its protective flap, you can extend the route out into pretty well most of the peripherals you might want to attred the accessory joysticks with extra capabilities including the Roller Controller, a trackball sort of like an upside-down mouse, a driving module with "steering wheel" and throttle pedal, and the Super Action Controllers with two extra buttons and a spinner, and games to match. All can be found with varying degrees of ease in the used market these days, though the driving and Super Action units are pricey for the limited use.     Meanwhile for some time Thomas Electronics in Saskatoon offered two versilow the Adam to support an 80-column monitor display. Eve withdrew from the market long ago, but John Lingrel under the Orphanware label carried on with similar products and even added to them; while Big John is no longer active with Adam the Orphanware successors continue to provide Adam expansion today.     Adam is expandable, most especially through this bus connector. At one point years ago I was invited to the home of one of Adam's most sophisticated developers and users. From the Adam on his table ayou still have to hook up your Adam (or one of your Adams) to a TV, you still can have a very attractive picture good enough to be mistaken for monitor quality. But it may take a certain amount of experimentation to find just the right combination for your unique circumstances. I've outlined a few experiments that worked for me, but you could well find an even better answer. In any case, the treasure is there; how smart you dig will dictate how quickly you find it.     One might say Adam is right-handed; than the Adam ultimately has built-in. One of the more popular attachments here these days is Chris Braymen's MIDI music interface.     Much more obvious on the right side of the Adam are the two joystick ports. These too are a bit more sophisticateed than they look. Compared to the one stick plus button most commonly seen, the Coleco joysticks could input signals designating eight directions, four prime plus four diagonals, two fire buttons, and twelve numeric keypad locations. Not only that; Coleco offeach.     All Coleco ever clipped on here was the adapter unit that let the Colecovision, and later Adam, play the Atari 2600 series games, and the Autodialler that came with the Address Book Filer program and seems to have been more of a gimmick than anything else. The first third-party device was Eve Electronics' SP-1, a box that provided a serial port for an external monitor or modem, and a parallel port for an auxiliary printer. Shortly after they added the option of a very expensive card that would alons of a mouse for the Adam working through these ports, but later withdrew from the market for lack of sales and have since closed. A number of individuals have since made up mice for themselves. But most people, if they add anything to the joystick ports at all, settle for the less-capable but more comfortable joysticks designed for other computers, or the Powerstick third party offering originated for people who wanted a lighter, more comfortable, much more responsive joystick than the original that camee designed so it will only fit into one of the slots, and then only when facing one way. It's not totally idiot-proof (we have talents) but it's highly idiot-resistant.     One of the planned accessories for the Adam that Coleco actually got into production was a modem that plugged into the leftmost slot, which tells the knowledgable that this is a serial port. Unfortunately the modem was only 300 baud, great in 1980 but so slow very few BBSs today will even accept a connection at that speed. However, thirewdriver, which is how I learned to break the lid retaining tabs. Seriously, the lid when first opened can be quite tight and will resist your first efforts, but will open with all the approaches mentioned - though I now use a steel house key. It's all a matter of being adequately patient and reasonably gentle. Take it easy, look at what you're doing and think about it, and you will pop the lid open with no difficulties at all. And every subsequent time you do it it will be easier.     Once it's open, pahen using certain software. As an option, Micro Innovations also offers a hard disc drive that can be run from this slot, though sometime after Adamcon 007 this is expected to be superseded by a new hard disc that connects through the Adamnet. If you want to use an auxiliary printer but locate it, for example, in another room, you will have to use it in the serial mode because there is a short limit as to how far the more efficient parallel cable will reliably transmit information. In this case also the con, powerful computer and tie into the bus connector whose astounding versatility we examined earlier.     Near the partition is the well with the connectors the tape drives plug into; notice the embossed labelling to the left. Next are three slots whose construction makes it obvious they are intended to receive edge connectors like that protruding from the right side. What isn't so obvious is that these slots are set up and divided in such a way that they are "keyed" - whatever is to be put into them can b with their Colecovisions. Some of these are still available new in limited quantities.     We have now had a thorough review of the outside of the Adam, so the question now becomes: what treasures lie within? There is what is obviously a lid meant to be opened. The manual says to do it with a coin, which is how I learned to break my fingernails. Then I tried a car key (push and twist) which is how I learned they're made of aluminum and break when turned against resistance. So I attacked with my trusty scs port will support access speeds of up to 19,200 baud, respectable even on the Internet, and the standard speed for a number of serial monitors that work with the Adam. Thus it's not surprising one of the devices more frequently found in this slot today is the Micro Innovations dual serial card, which plugs in to provide two serial outlets, one for the external high-speed modem and the other for a monitor - if you pick the right type you can even get an 80-column display without an 80-column adapter card wuse and take a look around. The right side is blanked off, though there's a little annex to the wall whose inscrption tells you that's where the tape drive controller lives. It's not hard to guess, from the location and level of the game cartridge slot, that the upper part must house the original Colecovision game board. It follows that the green board that extends off under the partition to the right and sits on the bottom must support the gubbins that transform a routine video game set into a full-fledgednection can be made through this slot if desired, although of course as described earlier the external bus connector gives you another option. This port will also probably support a mouse, but so far at least the mouse builders have preferred to use the joystick connectors for this purpose. VCR only know that they are receiving an NTSC signal of the type they were designed to receive and display or record; they don' found in the used market; it can pay to check with the dealer of your choice.     However the most common use of the third slot is for memory expanders. These have progressively gained in size and popularity over the years. First a number of third-party basement manufacturers came out with their own versions of 64K cards, most of which were improvements on Coleco's apparently rushed design. Then it was found that with the addition of a addressor card in slot 2 - a simple connection to a parallel printer ج1 ×63     But you have one of the hard discs that operates from slot 1 and want to add other peripherals? Not to worry; the middle slot will support both parallel and serial ports and do so simultaneously. Coleco envisioned, but did not actually produce, a parallel interface card to go in here with the idea of supporting an auxiliary printer. What Coleco never got around to third parties were quick to produce, so one of the most common early additions to the Adam was the parallel printer card. As users benger find time for design and production.     Meanwhile Micro Innovations came in to partially fill the gap. The first offering was a 256K card, which was also offered with only a few of the chips installed as a 64K. Subsequently Micro Innovations designed a board that would accept from one to eight attachments of a 256K single inline memory module (SIMM), thus letting the buyer choose a capacity from 256K to 2 megabytes depending on his needs and how much he chose to spend. The bigger expanders need to bs. While Micro Innovations has greatly reduced its activity almost all of its products are still available through your preferred Adam dealer.     Coleco did issue a small quantity of 64K memory expanders for the third, rightmost slot but sold few and these are rarely seen. One reason could have been that Eve Electronics was early on the scene with a speech synthesizer board that incorporated a clock/calendar chip, though the price seems to have deterred most buyers. Still these boards can occasionally bet know if it's coming from your antenna, cable or Adam. They just take it in and do what you want. Try that on your IBM!than anything intrinsically wrong with the computer.ےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےaےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےدےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےcard or MIB-3 already installed there will do - expanded memory up to the limits of Adam's power supply could be supported. E&T Software was more or less the leader in expanded memory, offering first a 256K card and later offering up to a megabyte (1024K) of expansion; Orphanware was hot on E&T's heels and did not seem to attract the occasional reports of problems that surfaced in the occasional E&T installation. E&T has since closed as the proprietor's full-time job obligations expanded till he could no locame more sophisticated and demanded the tools to more fully exploit the expandability of the Adam, fuller advantage was taken of this slot. Micro Innovations offered their Powermate attachment plugging in here, with a maximum of two hard and two floppy disc drives in the unit. This was later simplified to a single hard drive which also had serial and parallel ports on the plug-in card. For those with other hard discs, Micro Innovations came up with the MIB-3 which supported one parallel and two serial porte treated with caution as memory drinks power and runs hot; MI's proprietor facetiously suggests that when you're not using the 2 megabyte size for anything else, you can fry your morning bacon over it. At the moment MI's production run of memory boards is exhausted and they have no stock; however they do have the original design and production equipment and should enough demand surface to make a further production run financially feasible the boards can be supplied to meet it.     A Canadian player in mein only 64K of space. Coleco itself found it required at least a 64K expander for its factory final test program to work. Adamcalc was written so an expander acts as a printer buffer; once you press print the rest of computer memory is freed up and you can go on with the next spreadsheet while the Adam printer is fed data from the expander - an example of Adam's multi-tasking capability. Some writers of games - Steve Pitman is probably the most notable example - have found they can greatly enhance the attram is not Gary's first love and only a minor revenue producer for him, so his willingness to supply is strictly dependent on whether he is in the mood to take the time away from his higher priority work.     A good way to start a discussion in your user group that can get as informative as it is heated is to ask how much memory expansion you need. After all, expanded memory is not addressable memory. It won't hold a bigger spreadsheet or database, for example. But it can be set up as a ramdisc, that is a sass copying, only having to feed the original in once then copying to the target media as fast as the target drive will accept the readout. This is often how the temporary mass copies of demonstration programs at Adamcons are made.     As is obvious from all of this, a little ingenuity in exploiting the flexibility of the Adam can allow hardware feats that would seem impossible to the novice. The first Adam hard disc drives were built right into the Adam console by Orphanware and its successors; these "Misave you hours of unproductive time and significant amounts of wear and tear on your storage devices. Walters Software, who provide a number of ramdisc setup programs, report their personal use leans towards loading a number of programs (e.g. SmartBasic, Adamlink, SmartFiler, Adamcalc, etc.) into a big ramdisc so they can switch among them with insignificant delay in a long computing session.      Whether set up as a ramdisc or not, extra memory space allows programmers to develop capabilities impossible mory expansion was Gary Bowser, who called his operation (don't ask why, he won't explain) Oasis Pensive Abacutors. He caused a sensation at Adamcon 02 by showing a 64K memory card about half the size of any others; it didn't even conflict with the cables of a second tape drive. Some dealers still have a few of these expanders for sale. Gary has the bare boards and has agreed in principle to complete them should demand warrant; he also has the prototype of an expander using the 256K SIMMs. Unfortunately Adaction of their products with memory expansion. By far the best graphics program for the Adam, Powerpaint, won't work at all without at least 64K of memory expansion and if you want to work on a full page at a time (eight cells) then at least 128K is mandatory. If you use a copy program much all but a few of the earliest and most primitive programs will use all the expanded memory available; with 512K you can copy a whole datapack or even double-sided disc in one pass. Set it up as a ramdisc and you can do megment of memory configured by software to act as a storage medium. The immediate reaction to this is, so what? But in fact a ramdisc, while it isn't permanent - it goes away whenever you shut off the computer - will load a program even faster than a hard disc. So if you're constantly revising your work, for instance doing assembly language programming in which you write, save, recall, revise, resave, expand, delete and generally shove data aside temporarily only to recall it again and again, a ramdisc can ni Winnie" (for Winchester, the original hard drive supplier) installations are still popular though buyers now may opt to have the drive placed as a replacement for the first tape drive. Syd Carter developed an assembly of wires, switches and software that allowed anyone with two tape drives to write the Adam format to blank tapes (or restore it to an electronically damaged datapack); he called it Megacopy. A number of users found a way to build it right into their Adams. Dale Wick long ago found his assemto undertake this job at any time. If you pick up your Adam and something goes clunk, that's trouble. The last thing you need is some piece of conductive scrap metal bouncing around among easily short-circuited chips with exposed leads. But it occurs all too frequently. The main chips of the Adam run hot, so Coleco decided to put heat sinks on them. I have never found out if this was done to all chips or just some, or even all Adams or just some. Almost all of my Adams were acquired used so I am unclear as dam will run fine with its casing off, tape drives removed if applicable, even with the boards unscrewed and floating around, as repairmen often have to do to trace a fault. But if you don't have to do this, it's wiser not to risk an accidental short. You're unlikely to electrocute yourself; Adam's circuitry (except for the tape drives) run on less voltage than some of your flashlights, but it follows that anything that sensitive to small electrical flows is likely to suffer if exposed to even a small moment know if it's coming from your antenna, cable or Adam. They just take it in and do what you want. Try that on your IBM!than anything intrinsically wrong with the computer.ےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےaےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےدےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےrceptibly loose rather than snugged up as far as they'll go.     Once inside you'll see that the game board is (usually) covered by a metal canopy. You'll have to look carefully to find all the screws holding it on as they are neither symetrically placed nor in the obvious places; you will know you have found them all when the shielding lifts off with no force at all - maybe even just falls off on its own. The shielding over parts of the bottom board can be removed as easily.     Even a novice may have bly of Adam, floppy drives, hard drives, their power supplies and miscellaneous accessories too much of a nuisance to transport to user group meetings and computer shows, so he took an IBM casing and power supply and built everything into the single unit. Gene Welch has built an Adam complete with two hard disc drives into a custom plastic briefcase.     If you get the urge to get creative with your Adam, it's easy to check out the internal geography. We assume you know enough to unplug it, although the Ato the original state. In any case, the adhesive used often deteriorates with age and the first time the computer is jostled a bit a heat sink breaks off. If you pick up your Adam and it rattles, open it up and take out what's rattling. You can be in trouble if you don't. VCR only know that they are receiving an NTSC signal of the type they were designed to receive and display or record; they don'tary improper flow, from a slipped tool or static.     To get inside, first take out the tape drives; their screws also help hold the casing on. Then take off the faceplate; the screws are along the bottom. Next flip the Adam over and undo the screws in the wells around the perimeter, and you will find that the casing lifts off. Just remeber when you are putting them back they must not be overtightened; drive them in till you hit firm resistance but don't exercise your full strength; they should be not peج1 ×63     Once you're looking at the top board you will see the main calculating parts of the Adam. All of the chips have inscriptions identifying them. All also have numbers of varied complexity. The one that has a number with Z80A within it is your central processing unit. The one with a logo showing a map of Texas and a number 9918A is the video display processor. The other big one, and the one most likely in my experience to have a heat sink, is a custom input/output processor and is the only piece ofth 4164 in their numbers is the random access memory. Any chip with the Motorola label, a stylized M in a circle, and the number 6801 is part of the Adamnet, either the master chip or slave chip governing the tape drives.     Good advice about the Adam hews to the common principle - if it ain't bust, don't fix it. But sometimes the factory final test software (public domain, 64K expander required, available from your Adam dealer) will disclose a flaw. If the source is fairly obvious (a memory failure, fororth end of the board is another tin box; this contains the modulator that renders the video output readable by your TV. It can be opened if necessary though all you'll see is the back of the board inside; it's installed upside down. Also in this area you will see the ribbon cable with edge connector that is in effect part of the main bus; it does the same job as the stiff board and edge connector between a Colecovision and Expansion Module Adam. Running off to the left side of the top board is a woven wire unnecessarily; I have also seen a perfectly good Adam suddenly go on strike after a supposedly beneficial cleaning. Don't be shy about looking around inside your Adam; it's easy and informative, if you don't do dumb things you won't break it, and once a fault is traced it is, with the one exception mentioned earlier, cheap and easy to repair.     There are still Adam repair people around, such as Howard Pines, Phil Kososky and Dan Elliott among those who do a nationwide trade. Most user groups have membecomputers; unfortunately neither the Hong Kong manufacturer nor the importer put a number or address on the packaging but if you can find it, it works.     The lower board houses three Read-Only Memory chips plus an empty socket (usually) up in the top right corner; these provide Adam's Elementary Operating System and the Smartwriter word processing program. Syd Carter made what he called the No-Slot Clock to plug into the empty socket; this is still available from some dealers. The bank of eight chips wi the Adam that cannot be repaired or replaced. Small chips numbered 4116 are the video memory, the reason Adam boxes claimed 80K of memoery even though the directly addressable random access memory can only be 64K. Video RAM is instructed through the video display processor and only part is normally used, a fact some of our more advanced programmers have exploited to enhance the convenience of some of their programs. Chips with an LS in their designation (e.g. 74LSxxxx) are logic switches.     Up in the n example) your repair shop of choice can fix it quickly and cheaply. Repairing computers is expensive because of the time it takes to find out what's wrong with them - for instance I have had instances of video problems that were traced to tape drives and also the power supply, but never to the video display system. A couple of individuals who accumulate derelict Adams have brought some back to life simply by taking them apart and cleaning them thoroughly, especially at the connectors. But don't do the work strap which serves as a ground; it is worth checking to make sure it is not corroded and is making good contact. Anytime you are peeking inside your Adam for any reason, it is worth while to check for signs of corrosion and security of wires and grounds. You should also clear out all the cracker crumbs, creepy crawlies, spider webs and dead mice. There exists a set of limited-power vacuum cleaner attachments made for use on computers and office machines in general that deal very well with dust and dirt in rs or contacts who will do Adam repairs and can direct you to them. Any competent repair shop should be able to handle the Adam easily - if they flatly refuse to look at it, it is telling you something about their competence anyway so you haven't lost anything. Schematics of the Adam are very hard to come by and almost all of them have at least some blurry patches, as they tend to be copies of copies of copies. In addition the originals are about 24 x 30 inches, not a size easily or inexpensively copied for I have never heard of one of these requiring repair except for shipping damage; if they work properly when taken from the box they appear to go on reliably forever. Just don't ask about hard discs - Adam's are as troublesome as those on IBMs, Macintoshes or any other make of computer. It seems to be the nature of the machine.     This concludes our quick and, believe it or not, superficial overview of what you got when you opened your Adam box for the first time, and some of the things you can do with itrphanware group have shown themselves to be if anything too responsible for their own good when it comes to providing service for their own products. A Coleco modem that fails probably isn't worth fixing since its slow speed makes it as welcome as a pushbike on the Interstate where the information highway is concerned. It may prove cheaper to replace or even upgrade a 64K memory expander than fix it. Printer cards are a marginal call.     Coleco disc drives are also marginal call. Coleco set up their powe order the Adam Survival Guide from the Adam News Network. Though dated in some places it is still invaluable. For current developments, subscribe to the Adam News Network monthly discs. Of course your first source of information should always be your user group. Make sure you keep your membership renewed, always read the newsletter thoroughly and file it away for future reference (my own newsletter collection overflows four file drawers), and attend meetings as regularly as it is physically possible to arr with a second-hand IBM-generic double sided drive mechanism, 5.25 or 3.5 inch size. (I've actually bought the former, used but working, for as little as $2.00). You get a new, higher capacity drive fixable anywhere into the bargain. But, you still have that Coleco controller board with its built-in failure mechanism. I still have, in 1995, four original Coleco drives going strong and one 3.5 inch conversion. But the ones I rely on are my Micro Innovations drives, with their totally external power supplies. you. Still, if you're stuck, and the only satisfactory repairman is willing to help but needs a schematic, some dealers do have them for their own use and you may be able to negotiate a copy - though given the size they won't be fast or cheap. But they do exist and can be had. Reduced size schematics, mostly readable, were included in the book "The Hacker's Guide to Adam"; your user group likely has a member who has a copy and will loan it.     As for the add-ons and plug-ins, Micro Innovations and the O. For a clear, thorough, plain and understandable view of what goes on in the electronics of any computer, I have seen nothing better than the first six or seven volumes of the "Understanding Computers" sries published by Time-Life starting almost a decade ago. These have been discontinued and can sometimes be found in remainder bookstores, and should soon start turning up in garage sales. They are highly recommended.     For far more extensive information about the Adam written by people far more expert,r supply so that most is external but there is a big hot spot on the back of the controller board that sooner or later fries the chips around it. Even experienced semi-professionals seem to have trouble repairing these when the controller board goes wrong, and the hot spot seems to assure that it will. But if the drive mechanism goes, the decision becomes tougher. If you can find out how to wire the little jumper switches and disc in place sensor, you can get a new eprom from your Adam dealer and replace itange. In fact if you're travelling, arranging to attend the meetings of other groups on your route can be immensely rewarding. But if you really want to meet all the key people, get the latest and best information in depth, and have an enormously enjoyable as well as rewarding time in the bargain, there is no substitute for attendance at the Annual International Adam Convention. Your club or dealer, the Adam forum on Compuserve, and Adam spots on the Internet or your preferred Adam BBS will provide all the echnical work and no claim is made that it reflects any level of technical expertise above abysmal ignorance. The whole purpose of this essay is to give the first-time user some vague sense of what his or her new computer is or isn't, and how and why what some of the things that happen do. If when reading is complete some understanding of the computer's limitations is achieved, then this text will have served its purpose. So on to business. WHAT GOES ON IN ADAM'S BRAIN     The only thing any computer can ed by a metal canopy. You'll have to look carefully to find all the screws holding it on as they are neither symetrically placed nor in the obvious places; you will know you have found them all when the shielding lifts off with no force at all - maybe even just falls off on its own. The shielding over parts of the bottom board can be removed as easily.     Even a novice may have  though some newer computers top out at 3.3 because if they didn't they'd fry themselves. Anyway, we call these conditions Binary Digits, which we immediately shorten to Bits, and symbolize them as zeros and ones. Adam works on words of 8 bits at a time, which we call bytes. (Half a byte, four bits, is a nibble). There's one part of Adam that works on pairs of bytes, but that needn't concern us now. Just remember that no matter what you want a computer to do, fundamentally you have to instruct it one bit atج1 ×63NOTES FOR NOVICE SEMINAR - SOFTWARE - ADAMCON 007     This article was originally presented as a seminar for novice ADAM users at ADAMCON 007 in Waterloo, Ontario in July, 1995. So please note it is pared down and simplified to the point where experts may find significant omissions. (For instance, a Z80 text will show 256 basic op codes; I ignore the extension codes that bring the number available over 400 - but that's hardly a concern for someone who doesn't even program in BASIC). This is not a tinformation you need to arrange to attend. We'll look forward to seeing you there.     This article has been prepared from notes for a novice seminar presented by Richard Clee, past president of the Metro Toronto Adam Group and operator of A.D.A.M. Services, 21 Rondale Blvd., Toronto, Ontario M6A 1H6, at the Seventh Annual International Adam Convention (Adamcon 007) in Waterloo, Ontario in July 1995. It is part of a collection of articles for novice users offered on disc or datapack by A.D.A.M. Services.do is distinguish between two conditions. Call them on or off, left or right, yes or no, high or low or whatever. String a whole lot of switches in a line and you can chart a path to hugely elaborate systems - think of a railway switchyard. Adam runs through his switches four million times a second. (Some new computers do it 120 times a second). For the record, even though we talk of switches as being on or off, they are really operated on a difference between high and low voltages - Adam's high is 5 volts,to undertake this job at any time. If you pick up your Adam and something goes clunk, that's trouble. The last thing you need is some piece of conductive scrap metal bouncing around among easily short-circuited chips with exposed leads. But it occurs all too frequently. The main chips of the Adam run hot, so Coleco decided to put heat sinks on them. I have never found out if this was done to all chips or just some, or even all Adams or just some. Almost all of my Adams were acquired used so I am unclear as  a time.LITTLE BITS OF BIG NUMBERS     I have a bit of a problem talking in words like 1-0-0-1-1-0-1-1 or 0-1-0-1-1-1-0-1. I work a lot better using the Roman alphabet and Arabic numerals. On the other hand any computer works on a base of two options built into words embodying 2/8th, or 256 possible combinations, and Arabic numerals 0 through 9 (a base of 10) or Roman letters (with a base of 26) don't fit this very well. Adam isn't going to compromise; his ideas are hardwired in and are not going to chander the control of the TI9918A Video Display Processor is 16K of video RAM that supports the screen display - another 1024 x 16 x 8 = 131,072 switches to maintain and direct. So the next time your Adam is a little slow in carrying out some complicated command, consider how long it would take you to refresh and reset 655,360 individual switches - and have a little sympathy and patience.HOW WE GET THE INFORMATION IN     It is also possible to create a chip in which all the switches can be permanently setthis, it's no coincidence that a Coleco disc holds 16 x 10K, a doublesided disc holds 16 x 20K, and a datapack holds 16 x 16K of data. With the datapack, you'll notice that 256 is the highest number that can be expressed with two hexadecimal digits, or two bytes.     The true machine language is binary - base two. Ultimately that is all any computer understands. But if the computer is going to handle these bits in one or two-byte words, then it's easier to express them as one or two digits rather than 8 om is turned on that initial pulse of electricity brings the PROMs into action. Down in the right rear corner of Adam's motherboard are the PROMs that contain the native operating system (called EOS for Elementary Operating System) and SmartWriter. These PROMs contain code that automatically loads itself into Adam's RAM to serve as the Elementary Operating System.     This program from the PROM is quite eleborate. It tells the printer to check itself. It loads a copy of itself into the high part of RAM. Itndividually on or off at any time, and any one of which may be addressed at any time. In addition, every one of these switches has to be reminded of its setting about a million times a second, or it may forget. That's why a power glitch can crash your program any time, even with just a little blink. So save your work regularly, and never have more in memory at any time than you are willing to lose.     Of course so far we have only talked about the Random Access Memory, or RAM. But hived off to the side unge. So we need a vocabulary that caters to that 8 x 2 word form of computer thought. In short, that means a system based on 16, generally called hexadecimal and shortened to hex. For our eyes it's easiest to use the Arabic numeral for numbers 0 through 9, then Roman letters A through F to cover quatities 10 through 15. (Notice that is 16 possibilities altogether, as zero is a number that computers treat as any other. That's why the last block on your 256K datapack is numbered 255). As you might guess from , though then of course you can't write anything more to it. But it also means its program doesn't go away when the computer is turned off. Such a chip is called a Programmable Read-Only Memory, or PROM; if you can remove it from the computer, reset it and write a new program in it's called an Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory, or EPROM. Obviously since all the data are already in the PROMs, they just need to be activated to do their thing. This is the key to getting Adam up and working.     When Adar 16. And since 16 is one of the powers of 2, it's easy to create a little module that will assemble the bytes into their component strings of binary bits.     Let's think for a minute about what this tells us of the level of complication within a computer's electronic mechanisms. We say the computer has 64K of memory. One K is one kilobyte, or 2/10th bytes, which works out to 1024 bytes. So the memory holds 64 x 1024 = 65536 bytes made up of 8 bits each, or a total of 524,288 bitsy switches that may be i looks around to see what tools - peripherals like drives, monitors, keyboards and such it has to work with, and opens communications with the keyboard. When polling the drives it looks to see if any of them have media in them that might contain a program; if so, it reads the medium and does what the program instructs. A side issue here: of course there should not be a program in any tape or floppy disc drive when you turn Adam on; that initial surge of power can wreck it. But a game cartridge should be pluthe computer where the data drives and discs were, and how to read from and write to them, or how to send print commands to the printer and monitor commands to the Video Display Processor. These are just a few of the things the BIOS module does. It governs how files and their directory entries will be set up so they can be found and retrieved again. It records which port - really a memory address corresponding to a given physical expansion slot, Adamnet socket or edge connector - has a given peripheral connt that is a digression. We are talking about the Operating System, so let's get on with it.     The Operating System is a very special type of program without which the computer will not work. That is why it is permanently written (nerds prefer to say burned) into a PROM and done in such a way that it loads automatically into memory locations 54160 through 65536 decimal. That's space for 11376 bytes or 91008 bits. In the real world there are a couple of little gaps left here and there that hackers know abgoverns file operations on discs and datapacks. This does not include formatting; information for that must be on a PROM on the controller board of the device itself. Thus Adam can format discs but not datapacks because the PROM for the latter isn't there. BDOS can find a file, open it, close it, rename it, read it into memory or write it out to the storage medium, choose which drive to use and switch between drives, and initialize media. Call it the housekeeper of the storage facilities.se a faster, extey the computer, there must be a Transient Program Area or TPA where applications of the computer's capabilities can be made to perform useful work - like Adamcalc or SmartWriter or SmartFiler, for example - and the files of data they're creating can be maintained.     There are many basic functions all programs need to call on and that vast collection of 2/3 of a million switches has to be set to perform them. Think how big even the most insignificant program would have to be if it also first had to tell gged in or out only with the Adam off, and a hard disc which may have its own boot PROM should be turned on before the Adam itself. Later, any reset has the same effect as starting up the Adam from new, except that that initial electrical surge isn't there. And Adam polls the drives in the order Disc 1 - Disc 2 - Tape 1 - Tape 2, so you can stop a runaway tape drive by putting a bootable program in any drive polled before the runaway and pulling reset. Game reset is a separate entity all to itself.     Buected to it. That's why you can use a faster, external modem, or dot-matrix printer, or other optional equipment. The BIOS knows where everything is and how to send instructions to each part. It finds this out when it polls the peripherals on startup or reset. That's why you have to turn on the monitor, disc drives and other independently powered attachments before turning on the Adam itself. Otherwise it never finds out they are there and studiously ignores their existence.     The BDOS module primarily out and sometimes use, but that's beyond the bounds of this discussion. Still, it's clear that doing Adam's routine housekeeping requires some major machinery.     All computers have operating systems which in their fundamental functions are of necessity the same. Of prime importance is the Basic Input/Output System, or BIOS. Supplementing this is the Basic Disc Operating System, or BDOS. Linked to both is the Console Command Processor, or CCP. Finally, if any non-permanent functions are to be performed brnal   modem, or dot-matrix printer, or oth er optional equipment eit a heat sink breaks off. If you pick up your Adam and it rattles, open it up and take out what's rattling. You can be in trouble if you don't. VCR only know that they are receiving an NTSC signal of the type they were designed to receive and display or record; they don'uch programs offer a lot of other conveniences as well. If you don't want to use the Adam printer you have to put in a printer patch, which sends the print operation information to, at your choice, the middle expansion slot or edge connector. A hard disc may end up masquerading at tape drive 2 in Adam's perceptions. It's just a matter of telling Adam the different piece is there and how to talk to it.     Adam's EOS is pretty basic so sometimes it's not quite up to the job you want done, even with the helج1 ×63     It's nice that the BIOS and BDOS give Adam all these abilities, but how does Adam decide which ones to use when or in what sequence? These are decisions only you, as the one deciding what the program is supposed to be doing, can decide. So how do you communicate your decisions? Obviously, the only way you can - with the keyboard. And the CCP module monitors what you are telling the system to do and when you want it done, and interprets the signals generated by each keypress into language the com two operating systems and still have space left over for programs and the data they generate? The answer is, you don't. As CP/M is loaded it simply writes its own information over the space used by the native EOS, erasing the EOS in the process so no space is lost.     CP/M was great in 1982 but it didn't provide for many of the new devices that later became available for the Adam; it is also in some areas rather awkward to use. This inspired two Ottawa buddies who had learned the fundamentals of computed modules which effectively made them operating systems on their own. Some operating systems, such as DOS, Windows and Linux, can even happily co-exist within the same computer at the same time.     At startup Adam loads in its built-in (or native) EOS as previously explained. But if you have disc drives you may want or need to load another program that writes additional abilities into EOS - Coleco's Disc Manager, AJM Software's File Manager, or something similar; otherwise you can't format a disc. Most st know if it's coming from your antenna, cable or Adam. They just take it in and do what you want. Try that on your IBM!than anything intrinsically wrong with the computer.ےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےaےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےدےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےp of Disc Manager and various patches. Then the only solution is to install a new and more powerful operating system. As it happens, when Adam was new Digital Research wrote a generic operating system usable on almost all of the 8-bit, 64K computers of the time. They called it the Control Program/ Monitor, or CP/M. CP/M version 2.2 is specifically tailored to the workings of the Zilog Z80 series CPU, the chip chosen for, among others, the Adam.      But Adam has only a limited memory, so how do you fit inputer can understand. Thus the Console Command Processor is your link to the workings of your Adam.     You may have noticed I have quietly slipped from talking about Adam's EOS at the start to speaking of operating systems in general. That's because a computer can have any of a number of operating systems. A generic computer with an Intel CPU can ususally utilize any of Microsoft DOS, Windows, IBM OS2, Digital Research DR DOS, or even some which started out as specific programs but through expansion adder operations to write patches to improve the more cumbersome areas and add features that made their lives easier. But after many years and more lines of code than bear thinking about, they realized they had a patchwork rather like a building after its fiftieth remodelling - it was easier to rebuild the whole structure from the ground up than to patch it yet again. So Tony Morehen set to work to do that, with heavy assistance and checking done by Guy Cousineau. Since it ended up around 95% original code theye; otherwise the computer couldn't have been built. But most of us aren't quite that intimate with how all of these basicaly very simple instructions have to be combined to achieve a given desired result. Think, for instance, of how many individual instructions it must take just to tell the computer to find the Video Display Processor, tell the VDP to find the monitor, and then find a given pixel, display it and colour it red. Yet this is one of the simplest operations you could ask for in a graphics prograf such instruction might be #1 - look in (a specified) place, #2 - move the information to a workspace place; #3 - perform some operation on it (+, *, /, -), #4 - file the result in another specified spot; #5 - fetch another instruction; etc. This is all of course greatly oversimplifed but it gives the general idea. Adam's Z80 has some (surprise) 256 such simple operations codes built into it that do their thing when their numbers are called. And as mentioned earlier, it is easy to build an assembler that wuld be used for "compare", RET is a "return", and so on. The result written in these mnemonics is called the source code. Then with a program called an assembler, the source code can be automatically translated into the equivalent hexadecimal numbers, which in turn can be recomputed into a command file in pure binary, the system that actually makes the computer work.LANGUAGES     But let's get back to the real world. The number of people in this world who are willing to invest the time and effort needed of how simple the instructions are and how many are needed, my fantasy example given earlier left out a couple of the steps necessary to add 2 + 2.     Despite this, it isn't beyond human ability to figure out each single basic step a computer needs to perform a given operation, and even memorize each op code number that will tell the computer which of the 256 possible operations which of these it needs to perform next to do what you want it to do. After all, some human figured them out in the first plac called it Tony's DOS or TDOS, and while almost any CP/M program available will run happily within it, it is the most powerful operating system available for the Adam today.     The neat thing about TDOS (and its predecessor CP/M) is that it allows Adam to operate directly from programs written in machine language. (EOS does too but it's not so strongly oriented that way). This is really fast, because at bottom any computer has a CPU with a collection of numbered instructions built in. A fantasy example om; for that matter the operating system does it automatically for every pixel on the screen every time you turn the Adam on. Nevertheless, someone had to code every single step before the program was created to make that screen appear.     As mentioned earlier, at least these instructions don't have to be given in binary, or even hexadecimal. Instead we can give short little names - called mnemonics - to the functions that each of the 256 instructions perform. For instance, LD might indicate "load", CP woill convert a series of such instruction numbers in hexadecimal into the binary strings the computer actually uses. In fact, one can carry the process one step further and have the assembler start with letter codes (LOAD, ADD, MOVE, etc.) that convert first to hex then to binary, which makes life even easier. Of course to work with machine langauge in this way, you have to know the exact combination and sequence of machine operations needed to perform every operation, which most of us don't. To give an idea to master the writing of machine code is very limited indeed. That's why Bill Gates is worth about $13 billion. What's the use of a computer if you have to spend hours of time just to tell a computer how to add 2 + 2 and report the result? A computer is supposed to make your life easier, not more difficult. And us ordinary folk should have a means to let the computer know what we want it to do. We should be able to type in 2+2 and hit return, and have a 4 appear. And we can.     The great strength of comming mode. If you don't number the line before typing it, Basic will go to work immediately, which I suspect might be why we call this immediate mode. In this case Basic will first look at what you've typed to see if it matches in syntax the things the language can comprehend. This is called parsing. In our example there is, sure enough, an operator (the add sign) and at least the minimum necessary number of operands. All OK so far.  evident.     So let's say you've loaded in SmartBasic and when the blide is another. Each is a language the computer understands. Unfortunately the general run of humanity doesn't and in fact doesn't want to. What is needed is a higher level of language people can relate to and use to give the computer commands. Fortran was an early step in this direction. Common Business Oriented Language, known as Cobol, carried matters further. At a very high level, Stanford University developed a teaching language they called the Beginners All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code, the initiat know if it's coming from your antenna, cable or Adam. They just take it in and do what you want. Try that on your IBM!than anything intrinsically wrong with the computer.ےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےaےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےدےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےu've loaded in SmartBasic and when the blinking cursor appears type 2+2. Nothing happens; Basic is waiting for you to signal that you've done all you want to right now by pressing return. So press return. Basic reads the signal and starts the process. First it reads what you've written. If the line starts with a free-standing number, say 10 or 139 or 20065 you have told Basic you are in the process of writing a program so it will store your command in memory and wait for the next one. This is called programputers is that they can do the same thing, or the same limited variety of things, over and over again tirelessly and at blinding speed. But for each repetition of the operation, the combination of op codes will be the same. So, the obvious step is to build up modules of op codes that can be invoked with a single word - have a FORMULA and TRANSLATE it, the root of the early computer language FORTRAN.     At the lowest level binary language makes the computer go. Hexadecimal code is one step up. Assembly conking cursor appears type 2+2 rit a heat sink breaks off. If you pick up your Adam and it rattles, open it up and take out what's rattling. You can be in trouble if you don't. VCR only know that they are receiving an NTSC signal of the type they were designed to receive and display or record; they don'ls of which spell Basic. And when a computer is using Basic, you can type 2+2 and return, and the computer will answer 4.     How does this happen? Fair warning, what I tell you here may be a more functional than literal description, and it leaves a lot out. SmartBasic is a very big program, around 28K, that on its own without further development appears to do trivially little. It's not till you look to see what's really happening when you press the keys that its use becomes evident.     So let's say yoج1 ×73      A Computer's Perspective      by Ron Mitchell      1) If we were to make a hobby of studying humans, we might find         theirs is a history of unfulfilled potential punctuated by         periods of uncontrollable, self-defeating rage. They called it          competitiveness.          2) Be kind to your computer. You never know who is really         controlling your paycheque.      3) Cruel and unusual punishment for computers: being sold by a         human who thinks you're obsothat's pretty much it. It's a single side only this time and for that I do apologize. The press of moving and related matters has sharply reduced the time I have available to put this month's disk together. October's disk may also be a little late. Expect to get it issued toward the end of October. I'll be setting up at Mom's place in Comox BC, and I don't expect to get to computing right away. There will be other things related to settling in to do first.But we'll get back on track as soon as possible.ongst themselves.      8) Regret the past; tolerate the present; fear the future.      9) ROM - Reliable On Mondays      10)RAM - Rarely Available Memory      11)A young lad in science at school         Wrote a program he thought was quite cool         It put up a sign, saying students are fine,         But the teacher's as dense as a mule.      12)Some wives believe that husbands use computers to avoid wives.      13)Some humans believe that one day the world will be run by          computers. Hell, it's more fun watching humans screw it up;         why would we want to run it?      14)Computing is the science of manipulating humans. Some of us          have down to an art.      15)Programming a computer requires skill, imagination, patience,          knowledge and experience. Programming a human takes about 5          minutes of prime time TV.  d how to talk to it.     Adam's EOS is pretty basic so sometimes it's not quite up to the job you want done, even with the helج1 ×73The ADAM News NetworkMonthly DiskSeptember 1995This disk has been produced mainly by Richard Clee of Toronto Ontario who has written extensively on the ADAM. There are several articles and Rich has even provided his own introduction to the series. I'm indebted to Rich for the timing of these particular offerings coming as they do just in time to allow me to put out September's disk without doing much work myself. I've added an installment of the Computer's Perspective, and an Editorial, but lete to another human who wants         you for parts.      4) Don't worry, be happy! The most he can do to you is prove          the superiority of machine over man.      5) Give them time. They will eventually succumb to their own          weaknesses and self-destruct. Some of them have already begun         the process.      6) How would he like it if we shoved 120 Volts up his posterior?      7) Humans to the right of us; humans to the left of us; and all         they could do was bicker am Meantime, enjoy Rich Clee's work.   -Ron Mitchell0)RAM - Rarely Available Memory      11)A young lad in science at school         Wrote a program he thought was quite cool         It put up a sign, saying students are fine,         But the teacher's as dense as a mule.      12)Some wives believe that husbands use computers to avoid wives.      13)Some humans believe that one day the world will be run by          computers. Hell, it's more fun watching humans screw it up;         why would we want to run it?      14)Computing is the science of manipulating humans. Some of us          have down to an art.      15)Programming a computer requires skill, imagination, patience,          knowledge and experience. Programming a human takes about 5          minutes of prime time TV.  d how to talk to it.     Adam's EOS is pretty basic so sometimes it's not quite up to the job you want done, even with the helج1 ×73     This disc is made of of articles written over the last several years and originally presented in MTAG, the newsletter of the Metro Toronto ADAM Group, in VISA, the newsletter of the Vancouver Island Senior ADAMphiles, as seminars at ADAMCON, and occasional other sources.     For the purposes of this collection, some of the articles have been changed in degrees ranging from the lightest editing to an almost total rewrite. The changes, however, have basically simply been made to enhance clarity  will be charged for copies of this medium. ANN member newsletters and clubs are permitted to copy this collection under the regular conditions of their membership in ANN.e is lost.     CP/M was great in 1982 but it didn't provide for many of the new devices that later became available for the Adam; it is also in some areas rather awkward to use. This inspired two Ottawa buddies who had learned the fundamentals of compute and a half screens (indicated by the left markings on the page rule on the left-hand side of the Smartwriter screen) short of four full pages, I save the text. I do this every four pages.     I have found that if I then reset the Smartwriter margins to: Right 74, Left 8, Top 1, Bottom 54: I will almost invariably get a satisfactorily neat-looking printout that fits reasonably tidily on four typewritten pages. While not so critical for those who use the ADAM printer in single-sheet mode, I have found this     single sided disk drive, a 256K memory expander, one tape drive       and a colour TV set exhibiting a 40 column display.      I refuse to give up my piano keyboard until the absolute last       minute, September 18. I mean, what am I going to do for the next       week, attend retirement parties?      If the truth be known, that's going to be about it. Must finish       off the September ANN disk tonight and complete what remains of my       packing tomorrow (Sunday). Next week is going to beplete and make sense. Articles of four pages or less will of course show as single directory entries without number terminators.     I hope ADAM owners, especially novices, will find these articles useful. All are copyrighted by the writer and may not be reproduced without permission. This collection can be ordered from A.D.A.M. Services, 21 Rondale Blvd., Toronto, Ont. Canada M6A 1H6 at any time; the material is basically free but the same nominal srvices charges as are applied to public domain materialsand/or to remove extraneous matter; the substance remains as originally presented.     One physical change has been made. In order to make this material accessible to the owners of even the most basic ADAM, it is presented in Smartwriter format. I have found, over the years, that I can effectively compensate for the line-space bug in Smartwriter (in texts long enough to make it a concern, as when using a dot-matrix printer) by creating the text in the default Smartwriter format. Then, when I am two to twoج1 ×74        For the Record        by Ron Mitchell      Our prayers and warmest wishes now have to be with Faye and Norman       Deere. By now you've all no doubt heard the sad news that Norman       is battling cancer. We can only hope for the best and let them       both know that our thoughts are with them.      ---------------------------------      Here there's only one ADAM left that isn't in a box. Everything is       packed except my MIDI ADAM, an expansion module III with but one   produces quite satisfactory results when fanfold paper and perhaps an alternative printer are used.     Meanwhile, to leave room for users to play around at will, all of these texts have been saved (or re-saved) in the default Smartwriter settings. Texts that extend beyond four pages have a common filename with progressive terminations, e.g. filename1, filename2, filename3 ... etc. are all progressive parts of the same article and all need to be printed out in the sequence given for the article to be com a blur. When I       come to, the Good Lord willing, I'll be 3200 miles west.      This apartment has been home for 5 years and three months. It       became home when my marriage ended in 1990, and it has remained       home since. In the course of cleaning out a file cabinet last       night, I ran across a pair of pictures of the place taken       somewhere in 1991. There was more room then than there is now.       There were fewer shelves, fewer piles of disks and docs, and fewer       compute called it Tony's DOS or TDOS, and while almost any CP/M program available will run happily within it, it is the most powerful operating system available for the Adam today.     The neat thing about TDOS (and its predecessor CP/M) is that it allows Adam to operate directly from programs written in machine language. (EOS does too but it's not so strongly oriented that way). This is really fast, because at bottom any computer has a CPU with a collection of numbered instructions built in. A fantasy example ogage, it becomes quite clear to me that these       beacons, along with a realistic, honest respect for my own being       and potential are really the only things I have to keep me moving       forward and feeling well.  Everything else is furniture.      I've just had a letter from Rich Clee who wrote, as he frequently       does to simultaneously kick butt and offer encouragement. He       assurred me that we would indeed continue to be in touch and that       there is indeed life after work. Davtherwise coping with the inevitable problems of buying from a foreign country in a foreign currency. A.D.A.M. Services provided them with a local option, well enough received to have a mailing list of about 500 names.      As the description of the problems implies, A.D.A.M. Services prices look extremely high on most items - until one realizes they are expressed in Canadian dollars. The exchange rate varies by the minute, but as this is written a $10 U.S. money order costs about $14 Canadian plus service computer,       it's the people that make this hobby so satisfying and so much       fun.      For the record my new address:      2075 Cooke Avenue,      Comox British Columbia      V9M 1Y5      (604) 339-2981ieth remodelling - it was easier to rebuild the whole structure from the ground up than to patch it yet again. So Tony Morehen set to work to do that, with heavy assistance and checking done by Guy Cousineau. Since it ended up around 95% original code theyrs.  It was more orderly somehow.      Change abounds and I'm not much on change. While I'm certainly not       the only one in the whole world to face a major move, the process       this time has me more than just a little bit scared. There are       numerous variables, more questions than answers.      Time to focus on the upside.      There are constants: challenges, laughter, achievements, friends.        On those rare occasions where I can clear away the emotional and       intellectual bagج1 ×74     A.D.A.M. Services was established in 1991 to continue to provide a full-line source of regular-priced Adam software, hardware and supplies to Canadians after the last previous remaining source withdrew from the business. The working thesis was that many Canadian Adam users would abandon their Adams rather than endure the problems of finding payment methods, dealing with foreign exchange problems, putting out Customs and sales tax and handling charges, paying premium foreign shipping costs, and oid Cobley has been a calming       influence ever since he first heard that 'the decision' was afoot.       Local AUFG members have been of immense help over the past week or       two in helping to sort out the shelves of equipment that will now       offically become club property.      And Patricia Herrington picked up something more than the usual       wandering and lack of focus in my compuserve messages and asked if       all was ok?      All of which leads me to say again that it's not the charges; thus a program priced at $19.95 in the U.S. and $27.95 in Canada is really selling for the same amount, before taxes. In fact, as shipping to Canada is more costly than shipping within the U.S., and a federal sales tax must be paid on all imports at the border, the $27.95 Canadian would represent a discounted value to a Canadian buyer.     By playing with the tools available to cushion the impact of exchange rates, buying in quantity to cut shipping costs, paying sales tax on dealer cost and oth had many positive responses; details will be announced as they become known. (An example: we can offer Steve Pitman's new puzzle game, Microchip, at $18 U.S. delivered; to Canadians it will be $22.95 Canadian plus shipping and taxes if applicable). In the case of U.S. sourced hardware where we can arrange direct shipment from the supplier to the customer, the supplier's recommended regular U.S. retail price will be charged, though note in this case shipping may be extra. As or if we gain more experience inds now say they no longer have an Adam supplier they feel comfortable dealing with and have asked us to help out. We do not wish to let the Adam community down when there is the possibility of helping out.     Therefore effective immediately A.D.A.M. Services will no longer refuse orders from the Unitd States. If our American friends feel they would prefer to deal with us, we will accept their orders and service them. The unfavourable price differential will always exist, but to ease the impact new polici     A.D.A.M. Services is run by Richard Clee, past president of the Metro Toronto Adam Group, an organizer of Adamcon 02 and an Adam News Network executive since its foundation. Both he and his wife Frances are members of the Adam Gallery of Honour. The mailing address is 21 Rondale Blvd., Toronto, Ont. Canada M6A 1H6. The telephone number is 416-783-0316; it is requested that calls be limited to 10 a.m. - 5.30 p.m. and 7.30 - 9.30 p.m. Eastern time. Collect calls are not accepted and long distance inquirwise available, e.g. software created and sold directly by Canadian suppliers. The prices of used equipment are governed by the local market, so our prices may be wildly out of line, up or down, with those from another region. On some merchandise we simply have been luckier in our choice of suppliers, and having a lower cost base have always offered a lower price on specific goods. We are seeking licencing agreements from various vendors that will allow us to price their products more attractively and haveer methods, we have always been able to offer Canadians the lowest delivered cost on any regularly priced Adam product. But when we have received inquiries from the United States we have always pointed out that American suppliers we had met at various Adamcons - Adam Link of Utah, Adam Connection, S&M Video and NIAD for example - could offer a better deal in most cases.     Unfortunately we can't refer back to those suppliers any more; they have withdrawn from the Adam business. A number of our U.S. frien cross-border trading, other adjustments will be made as appropriate.     In summary the message to our American friends is this: if the withdrawal of so many of your favourite suppliers has left you lacking an American source you're comfortable with, will will accept your trade. Our higher costs mean it will sometimes cost you more to deal with us, other times circumstances may conspire to let us be competitive or even offer a better price. We plan to stick it out in Adam supply as long as our buyers do.es are now in effect for orders paid for in U.S. dollars.     Prices in our list will remain as shown, except for such routine adjustments as large currency exchange fluctuations, tax regime or supplier price changes may dictate. But when payment is made in U.S. dollars, WE WILL PAY ALL SHIPPING CHARGES. In addition, where an order totals $20 or over, a discount of 10% will be allowed. If the order total is $50 or over, the discount will be 20%.     On some items our prices will be lower than those otheries will only be answered if we are asked to call collect. An answering machine will take your message when we can't; replies will be prompt.     A.D.A.M. Services offers a full line of Adam hardware, software and supplies, new and used, full public domain service, copying where legal, program restorations, and other srvices. We try to meet all your Adam needs.s which of these it needs to perform next to do what you want it to do. After all, some human figured them out in the first placat leaves the three really big lumps, the readily identifiable printer and keyboard and that other thing which, by elimination, must be the one most accurately termed the console but more usually called the CPU after the Central Processing Unit of the computer housed inside. We'll start with these three units.     All computer activity essentially starts with input by the user. So let's us start by looking at the device that puts in the instructions of the user - the keyboard. (Ever notice, by the way, juج1 ×62THE ANATOMY OF ADAM     This text is the extension of notes for a seminar presented at Adamcon 007 in Waterloo, Ontario during July 1995. It is intended strictly for the new and novice Adam user. It is not the work of an "authority"; rather it simply reflects the experience of a very average enthusiast user, and latterly supplier to the Adam community who often has to explain to someone fresh from a garage sale what his new prize is and what it won't and especially will do.     This explanation d   Should you ever have cause to take a keyboard apart, you'll find the insides very simple. The main piece is just a piece of folded-over green plastic gridded with wires and placed so that each key presses down on a unique intersection of the grid. The location of the pressure is sensed by a 6801 processor hidden in the little tin box towards the top and interpreted as a number which is then sent to the console for action. Interestingly, should you ever open it up, you'll find openings in the key retaineris work is not for them, and have gone away. But if you have just obtained an Adam and want to know what all those pieces are for, let's get together and begin.THE MAJOR UNITS     When the Adam box was originally opened, it contained a number of items. The seven pieces of literature, primarily manuals, and three datapacks with software we will ignore. There was also a strange black cable and funny switchbox which will be discussed in the appropriate place, as will the two keypad/joysticks and holder. The; otherwise the computer couldn't have been built. But most of us aren't quite that intimate with how all of these basicaly very simple instructions have to be combined to achieve a given desired result. Think, for instance, of how many individual instructions it must take just to tell the computer to find the Video Display Processor, tell the VDP to find the monitor, and then find a given pixel, display it and colour it red. Yet this is one of the simplest operations you could ask for in a graphics prograst how neat and comfortable a design the Adam keyboard is? Some say it's the most lovable feature of the Adam, it is so easy to use). It is simple, durable and to a point easy to disassemble if necessary. Things that can make disassembly necessary are dirt, dust and general sticky stuff, but if you drop a liquid and especially something like a cola or coffee on it, don't bother to try a fix - that keyboard is history. Never mind; your trusty dealer can find a used replacement at a very reasonable price.  eals with hardware only - those mysterious devices with the putty-coloured plastic casings that confronted you when you first opened the Adam box, and what you might want to clip onto them where and why. What all the funny green boards are doing with all those odd bumps on them is the subject of another article in this series, while software has long ago been well discussed in the Adam Survival Guide, available from the Adam News Network.     By now I hope all the experts will have got the message that th for two extra keys, on either side of the space bar. Why? Ask Coleco; on the casing they're blanked out. No Adam literature explains them. Probably they were intended for use on a future upgrade of the Adam that was planned but never produced.     Anything this simple is unlikely to have troubles; if it does most are easily fixed. In diagnosis the first thing to do is to look and see if the little red power light in the bottom right corner is lit. (I have never heard of one of these LEDs burning out). Ifs so much weight, the power supply. While the printer needs a supply of power, it doesn't have to be built in; though most printers do have internal power supplies external ones are not unheard of. But the power supply in your printer doesn't just power your printer, it powers the whole computer. This is significant.     For starters, having the power supply in the printer means it runs very hot. So find a way to have a fan blowing through the printer to clear out the heat. Don't block the heat vents; donr as most phones use. As this suggests, if you would live more happily with a shorter cable, or a longer one, or one without tensioning curls, you can get one easily and it will work.     But if it's Sunday night, and you're fifty miles from the nearest store anyway, and the essay has to be in at 9 a.m. Monday, try this simple trick. Most keyboard problems arise from corrosion on the cable ends. So take an HB or preferably softer pencil and sharpen it to a very fine point. Then reach in, pushing as firmlye likely to put strange and uncalled-for characters on your screen than a failure in your video RAM. So if you suddenly turn the Adam on and find the screen studded with letters or figures you never typed, try cleaning the DB-9 connection, on both the computer console and printer cable ends; try giving both a squirt of electronic parts cleaner, and don't be surprised if the problem goes away. If you are trying to check the conection with a testing device, be aware that only four of the pins carry power - plour printer. It is slow and noisy and a greedy space hog, but it's also given to running on reliably for years when the fancier and pricier alternatives have long since bent their dot-matrix wires, clogged their inkjets or laser-burned their printing drums.     The printer is deceptive because it's actually two devices in one casing. The printer is just an electric-powered typewriter, simple mechanical linkages but moved by motors instead of finger impact. But hidden within is that hot metal mass that add it isn't, the problem likely lies with the cable that connects the keyboard to the console. First, make sure the cable is properly plugged in at both ends. If so, unplug it from the front of the console and try plugging it in to the duplicate socket on the left side of the console. If this doesn't work, try replacing the cable with a duplicate spare. You can get one cheap from your dealer or any electronics shop; it is exactly the same as the one on your telephone except that it has six wires, not just fou't put a book or papers on top of the printer, and don't put it in any location where it doesn't have free air circulation top, sides and bottom. If nothing else remember that the printer logic board is right there beside the power supply and electronic devices are notoriously susceptible to failure when exposed to excessive heat - and heat you consider just pleasantly warm a chip can find excessive and tell you so by blowing.      Power supply problems can show up in funny ways. For instance, they're mor as you can without breaking the point, and try in effect to colour each wire black. The combination of the slight scaping action of the pencil "lead" and the light coating of conductive graphite it deposits will usually solve your problem. If it doesn't, either the problem lies elsewhere or, least likely of all, your keyboard is one of the very few to actually fail. But even in that case, a replacement is easy to come by.     Also given very much to aggravating tricks but basically extremely durable is yus and minus 5 volts to do the actual computing, and plus and minus 12 volts to run the tape drive(s). The power supply also puts out plus and minus 18 volts but these lines are only used within the printer itself - to advance the ribbon, if you're curious.     Ah yes, the ribbon. In the Adam community, it's common wisdom that you can always tell a genuine Coleco ribbon. It jams halfway through. Under my dealer hat it seems I spend half my time explaining to customers why their ribbon jammed and what to tlly if it's obstinate and doesn't want to move at first.     The reason for this is that built into the right-hand side of the printer is a quite complex gear drive. It wasn't designed, manufactured or built to the finest of tolerances, so the system has a lot of lash. In fact, on occasion for no visible reason, a pair of gears will fail to mesh and jam. As mentioned, the thumbwheel frees it up. Further occurences can be minimized by occasionally lubricating the geartrain. You can see the end of it at tophis procedure just gets you going again. But I have only once ever used a ribbon I did not have to repair at least once.     Ribbons have other nasty habits too, like jumping out from behind the printwheel - cured by installing a plastic foam damper in the feed "horn". But one is their invisible pickiness. Look at the bottom. When you put your new ribbon in the ribbon tray (being careful to thread it in front of the printwheel while you're at it), the little round holes must socket on to the alignment pegt know if it's coming from your antenna, cable or Adam. They just take it in and do what you want. Try that on your IBM!than anything intrinsically wrong with the computer.ےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےaےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےدےےےےےےےےےےےےےےےocket and drops in. You'll find the hold-down clamp that holds the ribbon in the tray then snaps into place pretty well automatically.     A ribbon that suddenly jams and doesn't break is often the cause of a computer that suddenly stops dead in the middle of printing, locks up and won't respond to anything you do at the keyboard (although you might try pressing STOP PRINT, Smartkey V). If so, removing the ribbon may free things up. If not, try rocking the thumbwheel on the printer back and forth, especiao about it; I have also published three articles myself on the subject and others have also contributed their greater wisdom. But take it on faith, whether you are using the Coleco ribbon or the original, sturdier Diablo HT1/ Xerox 800 ribbon for which the printer mechanism was originally designed, you will have problems with ribbons jamming. And the only way to deal with it is to open up the cartridge, cut off and discard the used ribbon, and rethread and reattach the remainder. Notice I didn't say cure; t right looking into the open part of the printer. Put a dot of petroleum jelly on the point of a toothpick, wipe it onto the nearest gear, then advance the thumbwheel vigorously to carry the lubricant down the geartrain. It's worked for me.le if you don't. VCR only know that they are receiving an NTSC signal of the type they were designed to receive and display or record; they don's in the tray. And the socket for the drive capstan must be firmly set on the drive peg - that dingus that looks like the end of a Phillips (crosspoint) screwdriver sticking up through the ribbon tray. Of course when you put it in, the cross in the socket of the ribbon drive won't match the position of the cross of the drive. Not to worry; cunningly concealed under the left-hand side of the ribbon tray you'll find a little thumbwheel. Just turn it till the drive peg advances into alignment with its ribbon sهههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههههه